Is Your Food Your Own Choice?

25 Reasons Why We Choose the Foods We Do

It was while sitting in a restaurant with friends, amid beautiful decor and mouth-watering aromas, that it dawned on me. I’d been staring at the menu for several minutes but was no closer to making a selection. Despite my self-imposed dietary restrictions, at least four options suited my requirements and all had the potential to please my palate. Why couldn’t I decide? Had I lost the ability to make a decision? Why was it imperative that I made the optimal selection? And how would I be able to assess my choice anyway? Even if I had a gadget that could compare the degree of pleasure derived from different dishes, I had no knowledge of the chef’s flair for each, nor would I ever have known if I’d chosen wisely since I could only pick one. The hesitation made little sense. I’d fallen victim to the Paradox of Choice. In reality, any of the four would likely deliver more than adequate gratification. And if the only pleasure I sought from the eating-out experience was what could be attained through the organoleptic sensations of the meal, then I may as well have opted for the less risky approach: stay at home and make myself a favourite meal. No, it seemed, being waited on in a pleasant restaurant, in the company of good friends with amusing conversation wasn’t – to my hedonism-maximising brain – sufficient.

Why We Eat What We Eat

Fifteen thousand years ago, our ancestors weren’t paying attention to the protein content of their food. Nor were they thinking, “Am I getting enough vitamin D?”, even during the Ice Age, when there was less exposure to the sunlight vitamin. People didn’t think, “I haven’t had enough omega-3s this week” in fishing communities or otherwise. And I doubt that their hunting arsenal included a calculator and a copy of McCance & Widdowson to tot up the calorie content of the day’s hunt. Although the acquisition of sustenance was likely considerably hard, Palaeolithic humans had few worries when it came to thinking about what they fancied for their next meal. Back then, sufficiency was the primary consideration: humans simply ate what the tribe hunted, gathered and shared. And they enjoyed it.

Have you considered why you choose the foods you do? Ultimately, it’s the individual who has the final say – at least in western society – in what they choose to put in their mouth. But how much of our food choices is really down to free will? As modern humans, we have the ability to make choices in respect of what we nourish ourselves with. Examining the factors that influence what we choose to eat allows us to highlight their relative importance. To quote the anthropologist Marvin Harris, “Failure to understand the practical basis for food preferences and aversions … can seriously impede attempts to make good and eat better … It can lead not only to ineffective remedies but to dangerous ones” [1]. The concept of having the ability to choose what to eat is a relatively new phenomenon. Compared to in the past, the vast majority of humans today are fortunate to be presented with a considerable choice in respect of what foods are available. A lot is known about the nutritional value of our food, and, more recently still, many of us now consider other issues like the ethics and sustainability of food production when it comes to our diets.

I’ve identified 25 categories of factors that influence our dietary choices, consciously or otherwise. The list may not be exhaustive, and some influences may span two or three categories.

1. Availability and Accessibility

In the developed world, sustenance is taken for granted. With food a-plenty, few are constrained by lack of availability. However, in some regions, people may have access to just a small range of foods and can select only from what’s available. For those residing in remote locations, accessibility limits choice, and this is especially evident when foods have a limited shelf life. The seasonality of fruit and vegetables is also a key factor, although efficient storage and transport have made this less of an issue than in the past. Certain crop strains have been selected for in favour of more agile qualities, meaning that they can be shipped further afield, allowing greater access. Accessibility to food also pulls in the other direction: ease of exposure to high-calorie convenience foods is linked to obesity. A 2014 study demonstrated that exposure to takeaway food outlets was associated with higher consumption of foods purchased from these outlets and greater BMI and obesity risk [2]. Although the availability of food affects access to sustenance less than in the past, it’s still a key factor influencing our food options.

2. Organoleptic Sensations

Strong influences on what we choose to consume arise from the attributes linked to the pleasure we derive from what we eat: taste, flavour, aroma, mouthfeel and presentation. With adequate food available, people select what they think will give them the most pleasure. In regions with a plentiful food supply, seldom do people eat what they dislike, and I bet you succumb to cravings several times every week. The crucial influence on what you choose is the memory of what you’ve previously eaten and your recollection of the pleasure – or displeasure – derived from the experience. Chefs spend time creating not only flavoursome dishes but also ones adorned with visual cues, and presentation is a crucial attribute for success in cookery competitions. Retail establishments attempt to manipulate the organoleptic pulls of passers-by to reel them in. Consider, for instance, the bakeries that purposely encourage the enticing aroma of their freshly baked products to drift from their front doors. Consciously or otherwise, these cues not only affect what you choose to eat but also how much.

3. Nutrient Value

Knowledge of the perceived nutritional content of foods and diets – whether based on research or pseudoscience – has become a primary consideration. This may be the avoidance of high-fat or sugar-laden foods, the conscious attempt to consume more fruit and vegetables, a preference for a specific health-related dietary strategy or for optimal sports performance. Examples are numerous and include ketogenic diets and athletes consuming protein supplements or ergogenic aids.

4. Policy

Considerable influence on what we choose to eat results from official guidelines made by government organisations or certified interest groups relating to particular health policies. Examples are “healthy eating” policies and dietary guidelines, advising how much or how little of certain foods or nutrients should be consumed. This may relate to things like how much fruit and veg to eat per day, or the minimum daily intake of a particular vitamin, mineral or macronutrient. Policies vary between countries and may be based on different data, such as the typical consumption of certain foods in a particular population, and can be adapted over time following new evidence. Official policies may not always be optimal, however, and are often subject to debate. There has been controversy over the advice relating to dietary saturated fat, and expert opinion is split, with many nutritionists challenging the stance of setting a maximum level of saturated fat recommended per day. Advice relating to the consumption of eggs provides another example: in the 1970s, nutrition experts told the US government that eggs might significantly increase the risk of cardiovascular disease due to their cholesterol content. Consequently, egg consumption fell, but Americans gained more weight and more died from heart disease. In 2015, the US government changed its policy, deciding that eggs were not only acceptable but even healthy [3]. Whether official dietary policies are sound or questionable, they nevertheless influence our food choices.

5. Satiation

How much (or how little) a food will likely fill you up is something many of us consider. Someone controlling their weight might opt for a meal that will keep hunger at bay until the next meal. On the other end of the spectrum, a high-energy-expending long-distance cyclist may select calorie-dense foods. When we’re really hungry, we’re more likely to consume foods that we might normally find less to our preference, and after a meal, our motivation to consume foods that we find less satisfying is reduced, affecting our short-term food choices. Some foods trick our satiation response: think about when you’ve already consumed a more-than-hearty two-course dinner and you claim that you “couldn’t eat another thing”, yet manage to find room for a calorie-dense delicious dessert! Sugar cravings somehow circumnavigate the neurophysiological response of fullness.

6. Mental State

Our mental state has been associated with what we choose to eat and how much we eat [4]. What our mood is like at the time influences what we consume. If you’ve ever succumbed to comfort eating when you’re feeling sorry for yourself, I bet these were snack foods that required minimum effort to prepare. Also, how tired we are has a notable influence on what we choose to eat, and hungry humans have been shown to be less sympathetic, as demonstrated by court judges, who are more likely to impose harsher sentences immediately prior to lunch than after [5].

7. Affordability

What food costs has a major influence on what we eat. For billions of people, food choice is limited to eating what they can afford. In the 21st century, more people have the financial means to buy more food than ever, but their choices will still be limited by their budget. Low-income households are less likely to buy as much fruit and veg as those with a higher disposable budget [6]. The influence of affluence works both ways: diseases linked to calorie overconsumption have been linked to wealth*, such as type-2 diabetes, where increased incidence is associated with higher income [7], indicating that the influence of greater financial resources can lean towards less favourable dietary choices.

8. Convenience

In the age of fast food, the influence of convenience is no surprise. The global fast-food market was worth nearly $862 billion in 2020 [9]. If you’re tired or busy, preparing a meal may be low on your list of priorities. Although grab-and-go foods can often be of poorer nutritional quality, numerous convenient nutritious alternatives are available.

9. Medical Conditions

Certain medical conditions necessitate the inclusion or exclusion of particular foods or the adherence to a particular dietary regimen. For example, kidney disease may require limiting the amount of high-protein foods that are consumed. Someone with a high risk of cardiovascular disease may need to be particularly careful with their dietary choices. Other conditions require temporary dietary manipulation as part of the treatment, such as the short-term restriction of fibre-rich foods in some inflammatory bowel conditions to allow the intestines to rest. Some autoimmune diseases may involve strict dietary adherence, as in coeliac disease where the protein gluten – present in wheat, rye and barley – has to be entirely avoided to prevent destruction of the small intestine wall. Inborn errors of metabolism may also require strict dietary restriction. Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a genetic condition where there’s an absence of the enzyme that breaks down the essential amino acid phenylalanine, causing levels to build up, which affects brain development. PKU children need to have a carefully controlled diet from birth in order to provide sufficient phenylalanine to meet essential requirements, but not too much so as to prevent toxic levels from accumulating. Patients with cachexia, poor appetite or conditions that cause the breakdown of tissues may need dietary supplements.

10.  Food Allergy and Intolerance

If you’re afflicted with a potentially life-threatening allergy, first and foremost, you’re going to avoid foods containing the potential allergen, as in the case of peanut allergy. Other allergies may manifest in irritating symptoms only alleviated by the omission of the confounding allergen, such as atopic dermatitis resulting from an allergy to cow’s milk protein. Intolerance to certain foods may be the result of a medical condition or simply due to the person’s genetic heritage. One example is with lactose – a sugar found in milk. Only relatively recently – since around 6,000 years ago – could some adult humans digest it for energy. (There’s a greater number of adults in the world who fail to retain the ability to digest lactose after childhood, such as some native Americans, Asian and African populations [9].) Whatever the reason, knowing you have an intolerance to certain foods will be a factor in deciding what you choose to avoid.

11.  Mental Health Conditions

Issues relating to mental and emotional health influence food choices to varying degrees. This ranges from eating disorders like anorexia nervosa, where individuals constantly analyse what and how much food they’re eating, to Prader-Willi syndrome, a rare genetic condition that includes behavioural problems like excessive eating.

12.  Religion and Supernatural

Religious belief has had a massive influence on food choices for millennia, and while it’s arguably less of an influence in the early 21st century, it still carries food-related significance for billions of people, whether through the mandatory avoidance of certain foods or by requiring foods to be prepared in certain ways. Examples include the exclusion of porcine meats, such as pork, bacon and ham, in Islam, beef in Hinduism, and any animal products and even root vegetables in Jainism, an ancient Indian religion still practised today. Many of these religious traditions are linked to culture and have rational explanations, such as to minimise the suffering of animals at slaughter or to minimise risk of contamination. Religious festivals influence food choices and involve celebratory meals, even for non-adherents. Christmas and Thanksgiving, both of which traditionally involve the serving of a bird, such as a turkey or a goose, demonstrate that religious origins similarly influence the food choice of the secular as well as the more devout. Festivals may involve other considerations: Jewish Passover has specific rules, including the prohibition of leavened bread. Aside from those who follow conventional religious doctrines, others may believe that special attributes can be acquired by eating certain foods. Although rare today, certain witchcraft practices involved the consumption of things that were believed to provide some form of special power.

13.  Cultural

The impact of culture on the food choices of modern humans has been hugely influential and may even date back 400,0000 years [10]. Cultural influences have likely had a bearing on the physical and psychological evolution of the genus Homo. Even today, culture significantly impacts what’s eaten across the world, allowing those from different cultures to explore an array of cuisines. Some cultural traditions are linked to religion, and the impact of culture on what motivates us to eat the foods we do goes deeper than we think. Cultural influences on food choices are as important now as at any time in our past. Examples of cultural food practices were covered in a previous article.

14.  Dietary Beliefs

Any belief system that’s directly related to food choices will dictate foods that may and may not be consumed. Consequently, adherents may need to ensure they consume other foods in order to provide an adequate intake of nutrients otherwise absent as a result of the avoidance of certain foods. Adherents to veganism believe that animals shouldn’t be exploited in any way, and this includes not only the non-consumption of their flesh but also any produce derived from any creature. This relates to all sentient beings and mandates the non-ingestion of all meat, fish, insects, milk and dairy products, eggs, honey and products containing ingredients derived from the above, such as gelatin. There are less well-known belief-related dietary philosophies: fruitarianism prohibits the consumption of vegetables from plants where harvesting results in the whole crop being harmed; for example, root vegetables, wheat and sweetcorn would be avoided. Consequently, fruitarians only consume fruits, nuts, seeds, sprouted seeds, dried fruits and vegetables where the crop hasn’t been damaged.

15.  Social Influences

Members of the genus Homo have used food as a means of socialising for several hundred thousand years, and the act of combining social interaction with meals has itself been integral to the evolution of human culture, psychology and physiology. Cooking a meal from scratch and eating it together reinforces social bonds and mental wellbeing. Preparing food for others is a fundamental act of kindness: what a privilege it is to be invited into someone’s home and for them to serve you food. When we eat out at restaurants, cafés or other establishments, our choices will be restricted to what’s available from the menu. The influence of social factors may be subconscious: you may feel pressured to consume certain foods in the presence of others, particularly when a meal has been prepared for you.

16.  Marketing

The effect of marketing has a greater influence on our choices than we realise; food ads are everywhere! Don’t underestimate the effect of food “fashions” either: gaining insights into food trends is itself a growing industry. With ever-improving online algorithms, “tailored” advertising is only going to increase the effect of marketing on your subconscious choices. Packaging design influences sales of foods, and controversial nutrition claims – permitted under legislation or otherwise – will affect your motivation to consume something. The food marketing sector is huge and marketing spend is often one of the largest expenditures of a company’s budget. For example, the food industry in the US spent $54.2 billion on advertising in 2018-2019 [11]. This fact provides an indication of how much of an influence the marketing of products has on your choices of food.

17.  Others’ Decisions

For a large number of people, the food they consume may not be their own choice. Young children eat what they’re served (we hope!), reflecting their parents’ choices. Similarly, for people living collectively in places like residential homes, communes and prisons, choice of food is based on the decisions of others. Patients with medical conditions where they’re not capable of making rational decisions rely on others to dictate their nourishment. Also, while less common today, military personnel may be ordered to consume certain foods, such as during Victorian-era naval voyages where sailors were mandated to consume oranges or lemon juice daily in order to prevent scurvy.

18.  Political

Your food choice will be influenced by your own or your nation’s politics. You may, for example, choose to avoid foods produced from a particular country. Your government may impose an embargo on imports from rival nations or may impose levies that make foods more expensive. Moreover, a government’s food policy (as in point 4) may be influenced by political biases.

19.  Sustainability

Fifty years ago, the concept of sustainable food was scarcely on anyone’s radar, and a tiny minority of people even considered how what we eat might adversely affect the planet. Now, greenhouse gas emissions and land use from food production are rightly major points of discussion, and if minimising food waste is high on your agenda, you’ll likely save leftovers for consumption later.

20.  Animal Welfare

When it comes to animal welfare, what one deems ethical is subjective and open to interpretation. Nevertheless, there is considerable interest in the ethical treatment of animals, ranging from vegans who believe that there should be no animals involved in food production, to those who believe that animals should be respected and only hunted or farmed in certain ways, to those who feel that animal welfare is a non-issue. Food choice as a result of ethical considerations may include avoiding animal-derived ingredients in their totality or avoiding foods produced through certain farming methods.

21.  Human Rights

The ethical treatment of those involved in the farming, production and delivery of your food are important considerations. Knowledge of questionable standards may mean you avoid foods where there are concerns regarding practices involving issues like slavery, and these may relate to suppliers, producers, wholesalers or retailers. These days, good-practice standards are often set by large players in the food network, such as the brand owner or the retailer, and these help to minimise the risk of poor working conditions for the entire supply chain. Fortunately, with consumer interest regarding human rights and journalists exposing brands that don’t comply with regulations, such scrutiny is helping to ensure that companies adhere to standards for fear of bad press.

22.  Packaging

How food is packaged affects its shelf life. Controversies surrounding single-use plastic are an increasingly contentious area that has led to considerable investment in more sustainable materials for food packaging. For example, food giant Nestlé recently announced plans to invest €1.68 billion in food-grade recycled plastics [12]. Many people only purchase foods packaged in certain ways linked to public opinion, convenience and shelf life.

23.  Technology

The influence of technology on what we eat is both indirect, via its effects on factors like the taste, cost, convenience and availability of food, and direct in that you may choose to avoid certain ingredients involving particular technologies. Some people shun ingredients that have been genetically modified or have synthetically produced nutrients, preservatives, sweeteners or flavours, while others may prefer organically produced food. Many vitamins, minerals and phytonutrients present in fortified foods or supplements have been either developed synthetically or extracted via technological processes. In the next decade, we can look forward to numerous technological advances like lab-grown animal proteins, bioreactor-grown algae and carbon sequestration.

24.  Presence of Chemicals

The use of fertilisers or pesticides on crops or the presence of heavy metals – either naturally or through contamination – may be a concern for some and influence their food choices. As consumer interest in sustainable food systems increases, agricultural production methods are coming under higher scrutiny. However, while fertilisers and pesticides can be negatively perceived, their use has allowed some of the poorest people in the world access to sustenance, and their contribution to modern agriculture has been largely favourable. Chemical presence may be natural or as a result of contamination through poor manufacturing, storage, logistics or processing practices. Food companies and organisations should have procedures in place to remove the risk of contamination from harmful substances or the potential presence of undeclared allergens. The transparency of supply chains can be reflected in consumer confidence in a brand’s products.

25.  Adulteration

Thankfully, the adulteration of food by others is unlikely to affect many of us. Nevertheless, if there is any risk that your food has been played around with in some compromising way, either due to malevolent or vengeful purposes or merely as a result of manufacturers’ attempts to save money or having poor control of their supply chain, it’s likely you’ll avoid it. In the EU in 2013, it was discovered that undeclared horse meat had been a constituent in some brands of frozen burgers. While this was not a health issue in itself, the adulteration highlighted issues in the traceability of food supply chains and raised the possibility of other possibly harmful ingredients finding their way into the foods we eat [13].

Although the above list may not be fully comprehensive, each point is worthy of its own mention. If you hadn’t previously considered what influences your food choices, it might be because much of what affects our decisions is instinctive, and influences are not under our conscious control. Not all the factors will affect everyone’s choices all of the time, and some will never affect many people. Other people will be influenced by different issues at different times. However, the foods you choose at every meal will have been influenced, directly or otherwise, by several factors. So, the next time you’re indecisively poring over a restaurant menu, bear in mind that the fact that you’re unable to pick your dish might not be entirely your own fault.

* Globally, that is. Increasingly, income disparities within an affluent nation are reflected by the increased prevalence of and mortality from metabolic-related diseases in lower-income households.

References:
1. Harris, M. (1985) The Sacred Cow and the Abominable Pig: Riddles of Food and Culture, New York: Simon & Schuster, p236.
2. Burgoine, T. et al. (2014) ‘Associations Between Exposure to Takeaway Food Outlets, Takeaway Food Consumption, and Body Weight in Cambridgeshire, UK: Population Based, Cross Sectional Study’, BMJ, 348.
3. Nichols, T. (2017) The Death of Expertise, New York: Oxford University Press, p245.
4. Rao, S. T. et al. (2008) ‘Understanding Nutrition, Depression and Mental Illnesses’, Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 50(2), 77-82; (b) Benedict, C. et al. (2012) ‘Acute Sleep Deprivation Enhances the Brain’s Response to Hedonic Food Stimuli: An fMRI Study’, Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 97(3), e443-7; (c) Guyenet, S. J. (2017) The Hungry Brain: Outsmarting the Instincts That Make Us Overeat, London: Vermilion, p58.
5. (a) Danziger, S. et al. (2011) ‘Extraneous Factors in Judicial Decisions’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(17), 6889-92; (b) Anon (2018) The Secret Barrister: Stories of the Law and How It’s Broken, New York: MacMillan, pp283-4.
6. (a) Middaugh, A. L. et al. (2012) ‘Few Associations Between Income and Fruit and Vegetable Consumption’, Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 44(3), 196-203; (b) Grimm, K. A. et al. (2012) ‘Household Income Disparities in Fruit and Vegetable Consumption by State and Territory: Results of the 2009 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System’, Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 112(12), 2014-21; (c) Miller, V. et al. (2016) ‘Availability, Affordability, and Consumption of Fruits and Vegetables in 18 Countries Across Income Levels: Findings from the Prospective Urban Rural Epidemiology (PURE) Study’, The Lancet Global Health, 4(10), e695-703. 
7. (a) Corsi, D. J. and Subramanian, S. V. (2012) ‘Association Between Socioeconomic Status and Self-Reported Diabetes in India: A Cross-Sectional Multilevel Analysis’, BMJ Open, 2, e000895; (b) Seiglie, J. A. et al. (2020) ‘Diabetes Prevalence and Its Relationship with Education, Wealth, and BMI in 29 Low- and Middle-Income Countries’, Diabetes Care, 43(4), 767-75.
8. Fortune Business Insights (2022) ‘Fast Food Market Size, Share & COVID-19 Impact Analysis, By Product Type (Burger & Sandwich, Pizza & Pasta, Asian & Latin American Food, and Others), Service Type (On-Premise and Delivery & Take Away), and Regional Forecast, 2021-2028’, Fortune Business Insights. Available at: https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/fast-food-market-106482 [Accessed: 11 December 2023].
9. MedlinePlus (n.d.) Lactose Intolerance. Available at: https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/lactose-intolerance/ (Accessed: 1 March 2023).
10. Fuentes, A. (2020) Why We Believe: Evolution and the Human Way of Being, London: Yale University Press, p93.
11. Statista (2023) ‘Advertising Spending in the Food and Kindred Products Industry in the United States from 2020 to 2021’. Available at: https://www.statista.com/statistics/470418/food-and-kindred-products-industry-ad-spend-usa/ (Accessed: 1 March 2023).
12. Packaging Europe (2020) ‘Nestlé to Invest €1.68 Billion in Sustainable Packaging’, 16 January. Available at: https://packagingeurope.com/nestle-sustainability-pledge/ (Accessed: 1 March 2023).
13. Numerous reports, including: (a) BBC News (2013) ‘Findus Beef Lasagne Contained up to 100% Horsemeat, FSA Says’, 7 February. Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-21375594 (Accessed: 1 March 2023); (b) Food Safety Authority of Ireland (2013) Results of Burgers Analysed. Available at: https://www.fsai.ie/uploadedFiles/News_Centre/Burger_results_2013_01.pdf (Accessed: 1 March 2023).